This article and the one following are about Apple, and their factories abroad. Working conditions We as Americans would never stand for. Wages that are less than $17 dollars a day. Is there vacation time, health insurance, overtime, bonuses, when I say $17 dollars a day, that also includes working 16 hours, and sometimes includes double shifts. Being woke at ungodly hours served tea and a biscuit and then told to go work. Making children work in those same conditions, is disgusting. And morally wrong.
The iEconomy
An Empire Built Abroad
Articles in this series are examining challenges posed by increasingly globalized high-tech industries.
Donald Chan/Reuters
People flooded Foxconn Technology with résumés at a 2010 job fair in Henan Province, China.
By CHARLES DUHIGG and KEITH BRADSHER
When Barack Obama joined Silicon Valley’s top luminaries for dinner in California last February, each guest was asked to come with a question for the president.
But as Steven P. Jobs of Apple spoke, President Obama interrupted with an inquiry of his own: what would it take to make iPhones in the United States?
Not long ago, Apple boasted that its products were made in America.
Today, few are. Almost all of the 70 million iPhones, 30 million iPads
and 59 million other products Apple sold last year were manufactured
overseas.
Why can’t that work come home? Mr. Obama asked.
Mr. Jobs’s reply was unambiguous. “Those jobs aren’t coming back,” he said, according to another dinner guest.
The president’s question touched upon a central conviction at Apple. It
isn’t just that workers are cheaper abroad. Rather, Apple’s executives
believe the vast scale of overseas factories as well as the flexibility,
diligence and industrial skills of foreign workers have so outpaced
their American counterparts that “Made in the U.S.A.” is no longer a
viable option for most Apple products.
Thomas Lee/Bloomberg News
A production line in Foxconn City in Shenzhen, China. The iPhone is assembled in this vast facility, which has 230,000 employees, many at the plant up to 12 hours a day, six days a week.
Apple has become one of the best-known, most admired and most imitated
companies on earth, in part through an unrelenting mastery of global
operations. Last year, it earned over $400,000 in profit per employee,
more than Goldman Sachs, Exxon Mobil or Google.
However, what has vexed Mr. Obama as well as economists and policy
makers is that Apple — and many of its high-technology peers — are not
nearly as avid in creating American jobs as other famous companies were
in their heydays.
Apple employs 43,000 people in the United States and 20,000 overseas,
a small fraction of the over 400,000 American workers at General Motors
in the 1950s, or the hundreds of thousands at General Electric in the
1980s. Many more people work for Apple’s contractors: an additional
700,000 people engineer, build and assemble iPads, iPhones and Apple’s
other products. But almost none of them work in the United States.
Instead, they work for foreign companies in Asia, Europe and elsewhere,
at factories that almost all electronics designers rely upon to build
their wares.
“Apple’s an example of why it’s so hard to create middle-class jobs in
the U.S. now,” said Jared Bernstein, who until last year was an economic
adviser to the White House.
The iPhone Economy
Apple’s iPhone is a model of American ingenuity, but most of its components are manufactured somewhere else. The decline of manufacturing can lead to the loss of other kinds of jobs, a factor in the American economy right now.
“If it’s the pinnacle of capitalism, we should be worried.”
Apple executives say that going overseas, at this point, is their only
option. One former executive described how the company relied upon a
Chinese factory to revamp iPhone
manufacturing just weeks before the device was due on shelves. Apple
had redesigned the iPhone’s screen at the last minute, forcing an
assembly line overhaul. New screens began arriving at the plant near
midnight.
A foreman immediately roused 8,000 workers inside the company’s
dormitories, according to the executive. Each employee was given a
biscuit and a cup of tea, guided to a workstation and within half an
hour started a 12-hour shift fitting glass screens into beveled frames.
Within 96 hours, the plant was producing over 10,000 iPhones a day.
“The speed and flexibility is breathtaking,” the executive said. “There’s no American plant that can match that.”
Similar stories could be told about almost any electronics company — and
outsourcing has also become common in hundreds of industries, including
accounting, legal services, banking, auto manufacturing and
pharmaceuticals.
But while Apple is far from alone, it offers a window into why the
success of some prominent companies has not translated into large
numbers of domestic jobs. What’s more, the company’s decisions pose
broader questions about what corporate America owes Americans as the
global and national economies are increasingly intertwined.
“Companies once felt an obligation to support American workers, even
when it wasn’t the best financial choice,” said Betsey Stevenson, the
chief economist at the Labor Department until last September. “That’s
disappeared. Profits and efficiency have trumped generosity.”
Companies and other economists say that notion is naïve. Though
Americans are among the most educated workers in the world, the nation
has stopped training enough people in the mid-level skills that
factories need, executives say.
To thrive, companies argue they need to move work where it can generate
enough profits to keep paying for innovation. Doing otherwise risks
losing even more American jobs over time, as evidenced by the legions of
once-proud domestic manufacturers — including G.M. and others — that
have shrunk as nimble competitors have emerged.
Apple was provided with extensive summaries of The New York Times’s
reporting for this article, but the company, which has a reputation for
secrecy, declined to comment.
This article is based on interviews with more than three dozen current
and former Apple employees and contractors — many of whom requested
anonymity to protect their jobs — as well as economists, manufacturing
experts, international trade specialists, technology analysts, academic
researchers, employees at Apple’s suppliers, competitors and corporate
partners, and government officials.
Privately, Apple executives say the world is now such a changed place
that it is a mistake to measure a company’s contribution simply by
tallying its employees — though they note that Apple employs more
workers in the United States than ever before.
They say Apple’s success has benefited the economy by empowering
entrepreneurs and creating jobs at companies like cellular providers and
businesses shipping Apple products. And, ultimately, they say curing
unemployment is not their job.
“We sell iPhones in over a hundred countries,” a current Apple executive
said. “We don’t have an obligation to solve America’s problems. Our
only obligation is making the best product possible.”
‘I Want a Glass Screen’
In 2007, a little over a month before the iPhone was scheduled to appear
in stores, Mr. Jobs beckoned a handful of lieutenants into an office.
For weeks, he had been carrying a prototype of the device in his pocket.
Mr. Jobs angrily held up his iPhone, angling it so everyone could see
the dozens of tiny scratches marring its plastic screen, according to
someone who attended the meeting. He then pulled his keys from his
jeans.
People will carry this phone in their pocket, he said. People also carry
their keys in their pocket. “I won’t sell a product that gets
scratched,” he said tensely. The only solution was using unscratchable
glass instead. “I want a glass screen, and I want it perfect in six
weeks.”
After one executive left that meeting, he booked a flight to Shenzhen, China. If Mr. Jobs wanted perfect, there was nowhere else to go.
Apple Incorporated
AAPL: Nasdaq; Technology/Computer Hardware
For over two years, the company had been working on a project —
code-named Purple 2 — that presented the same questions at every turn:
how do you completely reimagine the cellphone? And how do you design it
at the highest quality — with an unscratchable screen, for instance —
while also ensuring that millions can be manufactured quickly and
inexpensively enough to earn a significant profit?
The answers, almost every time, were found outside the United States.
Though components differ between versions, all iPhones contain hundreds
of parts, an estimated 90 percent of which are manufactured abroad.
Advanced semiconductors have come from Germany and Taiwan, memory from
Korea and Japan, display panels and circuitry from Korea and Taiwan,
chipsets from Europe and rare metals from Africa and Asia. And all of it
is put together in China.
In its early days, Apple usually didn’t look beyond its own backyard for
manufacturing solutions. A few years after Apple began building the
Macintosh in 1983, for instance, Mr. Jobs bragged that it was “a machine that is made in America.” In 1990, while Mr. Jobs was running NeXT, which was eventually bought by Apple, the executive told a reporter that “I’m as proud of the factory as I am of the computer.”
As late as 2002, top Apple executives occasionally drove two hours
northeast of their headquarters to visit the company’s iMac plant in Elk
Grove, Calif.
But by 2004, Apple had largely turned to foreign manufacturing. Guiding that decision was Apple’s operations expert, Timothy D. Cook,
who replaced Mr. Jobs as chief executive last August, six weeks before
Mr. Jobs’s death. Most other American electronics companies had already
gone abroad, and Apple, which at the time was struggling, felt it had to
grasp every advantage.
In part, Asia was attractive because the semiskilled workers there were
cheaper. But that wasn’t driving Apple. For technology companies, the
cost of labor is minimal compared with the expense of buying parts and
managing supply chains that bring together components and services from
hundreds of companies.
For Mr. Cook, the focus on Asia “came down to two things,” said one
former high-ranking Apple executive. Factories in Asia “can scale up and
down faster” and “Asian supply chains have surpassed what’s in the
U.S.” The result is that “we can’t compete at this point,” the executive
said.
The impact of such advantages became obvious as soon as Mr. Jobs demanded glass screens in 2007.
For years, cellphone makers had avoided using glass because it required
precision in cutting and grinding that was extremely difficult to
achieve. Apple had already selected an American company, Corning Inc.,
to manufacture large panes of strengthened glass. But figuring out how
to cut those panes into millions of iPhone screens required finding an
empty cutting plant, hundreds of pieces of glass to use in experiments
and an army of midlevel engineers. It would cost a fortune simply to
prepare.
Then a bid for the work arrived from a Chinese factory.
When an Apple team visited, the Chinese plant’s owners were already
constructing a new wing. “This is in case you give us the contract,” the
manager said, according to a former Apple executive. The Chinese
government had agreed to underwrite costs for numerous industries, and
those subsidies had trickled down to the glass-cutting factory. It had a
warehouse filled with glass samples available to Apple, free of charge.
The owners made engineers available at almost no cost. They had built
on-site dormitories so employees would be available 24 hours a day.
The Chinese plant got the job.
“The entire supply chain is in China now,” said another former
high-ranking Apple executive. “You need a thousand rubber gaskets?
That’s the factory next door. You need a million screws? That factory is
a block away. You need that screw made a little bit different? It will
take three hours.”
Business
Made in China(video)
In Foxconn City
An eight-hour drive from that glass factory is a complex, known
informally as Foxconn City, where the iPhone is assembled. To Apple
executives, Foxconn City was further evidence that China could deliver
workers — and diligence — that outpaced their American counterparts.
That’s because nothing like Foxconn City exists in the United States.
The facility has 230,000 employees, many working six days a week, often
spending up to 12 hours a day at the plant. Over a quarter of Foxconn’s
work force lives in company barracks and many workers earn less than $17
a day. When one Apple executive arrived during a shift change, his car
was stuck in a river of employees streaming past. “The scale is
unimaginable,” he said.
Foxconn employs nearly 300 guards to direct foot traffic so workers are
not crushed in doorway bottlenecks. The facility’s central kitchen cooks
an average of three tons of pork and 13 tons of rice a day. While
factories are spotless, the air inside nearby teahouses is hazy with the
smoke and stench of cigarettes.
Foxconn Technology has dozens of
facilities in Asia and Eastern Europe, and in Mexico and Brazil, and it
assembles an estimated 40 percent of the world’s consumer electronics
for customers like Amazon, Dell, Hewlett-Packard, Motorola, Nintendo,
Nokia, Samsung and Sony.
“They could hire 3,000 people overnight,” said Jennifer Rigoni, who was
Apple’s worldwide supply demand manager until 2010, but declined to
discuss specifics of her work. “What U.S. plant can find 3,000 people
overnight and convince them to live in dorms?”
In mid-2007, after a month of experimentation, Apple’s engineers finally
perfected a method for cutting strengthened glass so it could be used
in the iPhone’s screen. The first truckloads of cut glass arrived at
Foxconn City in the dead of night, according to the former Apple
executive. That’s when managers woke thousands of workers, who crawled
into their uniforms — white and black shirts for men, red for women —
and quickly lined up to assemble, by hand, the phones. Within three
months, Apple had sold one million iPhones. Since then, Foxconn has
assembled over 200 million more.
Foxconn, in statements, declined to speak about specific clients.
“Any worker recruited by our firm is covered by a clear contract
outlining terms and conditions and by Chinese government law that
protects their rights,” the company wrote. Foxconn “takes our
responsibility to our employees very seriously and we work hard to give
our more than one million employees a safe and positive environment.”
The company disputed some details of the former Apple executive’s
account, and wrote that a midnight shift, such as the one described, was
impossible “because we have strict regulations regarding the working
hours of our employees based on their designated shifts, and every
employee has computerized timecards that would bar them from working at
any facility at a time outside of their approved shift.” The company
said that all shifts began at either 7 a.m. or 7 p.m., and that
employees receive at least 12 hours’ notice of any schedule changes.
Foxconn employees, in interviews, have challenged those assertions.
Another critical advantage for Apple was that China provided engineers
at a scale the United States could not match. Apple’s executives had
estimated that about 8,700 industrial engineers were needed to oversee
and guide the 200,000 assembly-line workers eventually involved in
manufacturing iPhones. The company’s analysts had forecast it would take
as long as nine months to find that many qualified engineers in the
United States.
In China, it took 15 days.
Companies like Apple “say the challenge in setting up U.S. plants is finding a technical work force,” said Martin Schmidt,
associate provost at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In
particular, companies say they need engineers with more than high
school, but not necessarily a bachelor’s degree. Americans at that skill
level are hard to find, executives contend. “They’re good jobs, but the
country doesn’t have enough to feed the demand,” Mr. Schmidt said.
Some aspects of the iPhone are uniquely American. The device’s software,
for instance, and its innovative marketing campaigns were largely
created in the United States. Apple recently built a $500 million data
center in North Carolina. Crucial semiconductors inside the iPhone 4 and
4S are manufactured in an Austin, Tex., factory by Samsung, of South
Korea.
But even those facilities are not enormous sources of jobs. Apple’s
North Carolina center, for instance, has only 100 full-time employees.
The Samsung plant has an estimated 2,400 workers.
“If you scale up from selling one million phones to 30 million phones,
you don’t really need more programmers,” said Jean-Louis Gassée, who
oversaw product development and marketing for Apple until he left in
1990. “All these new companies — Facebook, Google, Twitter — benefit
from this. They grow, but they don’t really need to hire much.”
It is hard to estimate how much more it would cost to build iPhones in
the United States. However, various academics and manufacturing analysts
estimate that because labor is such a small part of technology
manufacturing, paying American wages would add up to $65 to each
iPhone’s expense. Since Apple’s profits are often hundreds of dollars
per phone, building domestically, in theory, would still give the
company a healthy reward.
But such calculations are, in many respects, meaningless because
building the iPhone in the United States would demand much more than
hiring Americans — it would require transforming the national and global
economies. Apple executives believe there simply aren’t enough American
workers with the skills the company needs or factories with sufficient
speed and flexibility. Other companies that work with Apple, like
Corning, also say they must go abroad.
Manufacturing glass for the iPhone revived a Corning factory in
Kentucky, and today, much of the glass in iPhones is still made there.
After the iPhone became a success, Corning received a flood of orders
from other companies hoping to imitate Apple’s designs. Its strengthened
glass sales have grown to more than $700 million a year, and it has
hired or continued employing about 1,000 Americans to support the
emerging market.
But as that market has expanded, the bulk of Corning’s strengthened
glass manufacturing has occurred at plants in Japan and Taiwan.
“Our customers are in Taiwan, Korea, Japan and China,” said James B.
Flaws, Corning’s vice chairman and chief financial officer. “We could
make the glass here, and then ship it by boat, but that takes 35 days.
Or, we could ship it by air, but that’s 10 times as expensive. So we
build our glass factories next door to assembly factories, and those are
overseas.”
Corning was founded in America 161 years ago and its headquarters are
still in upstate New York. Theoretically, the company could manufacture
all its glass domestically. But it would “require a total overhaul in
how the industry is structured,” Mr. Flaws said. “The consumer
electronics business has become an Asian business. As an American, I
worry about that, but there’s nothing I can do to stop it. Asia has
become what the U.S. was for the last 40 years.”
Middle-Class Jobs Fade
The first time Eric Saragoza stepped into Apple’s manufacturing plant in
Elk Grove, Calif., he felt as if he were entering an engineering
wonderland.
It was 1995, and the facility near Sacramento employed more than 1,500
workers. It was a kaleidoscope of robotic arms, conveyor belts ferrying
circuit boards and, eventually, candy-colored iMacs in various stages of
assembly. Mr. Saragoza, an engineer, quickly moved up the plant’s ranks
and joined an elite diagnostic team. His salary climbed to $50,000. He
and his wife had three children. They bought a home with a pool.
“It felt like, finally, school was paying off,” he said. “I knew the world needed people who can build things.”
At the same time, however, the electronics industry was changing, and
Apple — with products that were declining in popularity — was struggling
to remake itself. One focus was improving manufacturing. A few years
after Mr. Saragoza started his job, his bosses explained how the
California plant stacked up against overseas factories: the cost,
excluding the materials, of building a $1,500 computer in Elk Grove was
$22 a machine. In Singapore, it was $6. In Taiwan, $4.85. Wages weren’t
the major reason for the disparities. Rather it was costs like inventory
and how long it took workers to finish a task.
“We were told we would have to do 12-hour days, and come in on
Saturdays,” Mr. Saragoza said. “I had a family. I wanted to see my kids
play soccer.”
Modernization has always caused some kinds of jobs to change or
disappear. As the American economy transitioned from agriculture to
manufacturing and then to other industries, farmers became steelworkers,
and then salesmen and middle managers. These shifts have carried many
economic benefits, and in general, with each progression, even unskilled
workers received better wages and greater chances at upward mobility.
But in the last two decades, something more fundamental has changed,
economists say. Midwage jobs started disappearing. Particularly among
Americans without college degrees, today’s new jobs are
disproportionately in service occupations — at restaurants or call
centers, or as hospital attendants or temporary workers — that offer
fewer opportunities for reaching the middle class.
Even Mr. Saragoza, with his college degree, was vulnerable to these
trends. First, some of Elk Grove’s routine tasks were sent overseas. Mr.
Saragoza didn’t mind. Then the robotics that made Apple a futuristic
playground allowed executives to replace workers with machines. Some
diagnostic engineering went to Singapore. Middle managers who oversaw
the plant’s inventory were laid off because, suddenly, a few people with
Internet connections were all that were needed.
Mr. Saragoza was too expensive for an unskilled position. He was also
insufficiently credentialed for upper management. He was called into a
small office in 2002 after a night shift, laid off and then escorted
from the plant. He taught high school for a while, and then tried a
return to technology. But Apple, which had helped anoint the region as
“Silicon Valley North,” had by then converted much of the Elk Grove
plant into an AppleCare call center, where new employees often earn $12
an hour.
There were employment prospects in Silicon Valley, but none of them
panned out. “What they really want are 30-year-olds without children,”
said Mr. Saragoza, who today is 48, and whose family now includes five
of his own.
After a few months of looking for work, he started feeling desperate.
Even teaching jobs had dried up. So he took a position with an
electronics temp agency that had been hired by Apple to check returned
iPhones and iPads before they were sent back to customers. Every day,
Mr. Saragoza would drive to the building where he had once worked as an
engineer, and for $10 an hour with no benefits, wipe thousands of glass
screens and test audio ports by plugging in headphones.
Paydays for Apple
As Apple’s overseas operations and sales have expanded, its top
employees have thrived. Last fiscal year, Apple’s revenue topped $108
billion, a sum larger than the combined state budgets of Michigan, New
Jersey and Massachusetts. Since 2005, when the company’s stock split,
share prices have risen from about $45 to more than $427.
Some of that wealth has gone to shareholders. Apple is among the most
widely held stocks, and the rising share price has benefited millions of
individual investors, 401(k)’s
and pension plans. The bounty has also enriched Apple workers. Last
fiscal year, in addition to their salaries, Apple’s employees and
directors received stock worth $2 billion and exercised or vested stock
and options worth an added $1.4 billion.
The biggest rewards, however, have often gone to Apple’s top employees. Mr. Cook, Apple’s chief, last year received stock grants
— which vest over a 10-year period — that, at today’s share price,
would be worth $427 million, and his salary was raised to $1.4 million.
In 2010, Mr. Cook’s compensation package was valued at $59 million,
according to Apple’s security filings.
A person close to Apple argued that the compensation received by Apple’s
employees was fair, in part because the company had brought so much
value to the nation and world. As the company has grown, it has expanded
its domestic work force, including manufacturing jobs. Last year,
Apple’s American work force grew by 8,000 people.
While other companies have sent call centers abroad, Apple has kept its
centers in the United States. One source estimated that sales of Apple’s
products have caused other companies to hire tens of thousands of
Americans. FedEx and United Parcel Service, for instance, both say they
have created American jobs because of the volume of Apple’s shipments,
though neither would provide specific figures without permission from
Apple, which the company declined to provide.
“We shouldn’t be criticized for using Chinese workers,” a current Apple
executive said. “The U.S. has stopped producing people with the skills
we need.”
What’s more, Apple sources say the company has created plenty of good
American jobs inside its retail stores and among entrepreneurs selling
iPhone and iPad applications.
After two months of testing iPads, Mr. Saragoza quit. The pay was so low
that he was better off, he figured, spending those hours applying for
other jobs. On a recent October evening, while Mr. Saragoza sat at his
MacBook and submitted another round of résumés online, halfway around
the world a woman arrived at her office. The worker, Lina Lin, is a
project manager in Shenzhen, China, at PCH International, which
contracts with Apple and other electronics companies to coordinate
production of accessories, like the cases that protect the iPad’s glass
screens. She is not an Apple employee. But Mrs. Lin is integral to
Apple’s ability to deliver its products.
Mrs. Lin earns a bit less than what Mr. Saragoza was paid by Apple. She
speaks fluent English, learned from watching television and in a Chinese
university. She and her husband put a quarter of their salaries in the
bank every month. They live in a 1,080-square-foot apartment, which they
share with their in-laws and son.
“There are lots of jobs,” Mrs. Lin said. “Especially in Shenzhen.”
Innovation’s Losers
Toward the end of Mr. Obama’s dinner last year with Mr. Jobs and other
Silicon Valley executives, as everyone stood to leave, a crowd of photo
seekers formed around the president. A slightly smaller scrum gathered
around Mr. Jobs. Rumors had spread that his illness had worsened, and
some hoped for a photograph with him, perhaps for the last time.
Eventually, the orbits of the men overlapped. “I’m not worried about the
country’s long-term future,” Mr. Jobs told Mr. Obama, according to one
observer. “This country is insanely great. What I’m worried about is
that we don’t talk enough about solutions.”
At dinner, for instance, the executives had suggested that the
government should reform visa programs to help companies hire foreign
engineers. Some had urged the president to give companies a “tax
holiday” so they could bring back overseas profits which, they argued,
would be used to create work. Mr. Jobs even suggested it might be
possible, someday, to locate some of Apple’s skilled manufacturing in
the United States if the government helped train more American
engineers.
Economists debate the usefulness of those and other efforts, and note
that a struggling economy is sometimes transformed by unexpected
developments. The last time analysts wrung their hands about prolonged
American unemployment, for instance, in the early 1980s, the Internet
hardly existed. Few at the time would have guessed that a degree in
graphic design was rapidly becoming a smart bet, while studying
telephone repair a dead end.
What remains unknown, however, is whether the United States will be able
to leverage tomorrow’s innovations into millions of jobs.
In the last decade, technological leaps in solar and wind energy,
semiconductor fabrication and display technologies have created
thousands of jobs. But while many of those industries started in
America, much of the employment has occurred abroad. Companies have
closed major facilities in the United States to reopen in China. By way
of explanation, executives say they are competing with Apple for
shareholders. If they cannot rival Apple’s growth and profit margins,
they won’t survive.
“New middle-class jobs will eventually emerge,” said Lawrence Katz, a
Harvard economist. “But will someone in his 40s have the skills for
them? Or will he be bypassed for a new graduate and never find his way
back into the middle class?”
The pace of innovation, say executives from a variety of industries, has
been quickened by businessmen like Mr. Jobs. G.M. went as long as half a
decade between major automobile redesigns. Apple, by comparison, has
released five iPhones in four years, doubling the devices’ speed and
memory while dropping the price that some consumers pay.
Before Mr. Obama and Mr. Jobs said goodbye, the Apple executive pulled
an iPhone from his pocket to show off a new application — a driving game
— with incredibly detailed graphics. The device reflected the soft glow
of the room’s lights. The other executives, whose combined worth
exceeded $69 billion, jostled for position to glance over his shoulder.
The game, everyone agreed, was wonderful.
There wasn’t even a tiny scratch on the screen.
This article has been revised to reflect the following correction:
Correction: January 24, 2012
An article on Sunday about the reasons iPhones are largely produced overseas omitted a passage immediately after the second continuation, from Page A22 to Page A23, in one edition. The full passage should have read: “Another critical advantage for Apple was that China provided engineers at a scale the United States could not match. Apple’s executives had estimated that about 8,700 industrial engineers were needed to oversee and guide the 200,000 assembly-line workers eventually involved in manufacturing iPhones. The company’s analysts had forecast it would take as long as nine months to find that many qualified engineers in the United States.”
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